Hindu Revival

The onslaught of reformist movements such as Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj evoked a strong response from orthodox Hindu society. These reformist movements sought to abolish age-old practices of image worship, challenged the authenticity of Puranic traditions, and denounced Brahmanical Hinduism, including its caste system, the superiority of Brahmins, and abominable practices like Sati, early marriage of girls, which deprived them of formal education opportunities, and the dire condition of widows. The religious orders were fragmented; the Vaishnavas, worshippers of Krishna and Vishnu; the Shaktas, worshippers of the Divine Mother, Durga or Kali; and the Shaivas, followers of Shiva, were often at loggerheads. Moreover, there was extreme debauchery in the name of religion among both Vaishnavas and Shaktas, with horrible practices like orgies being common among some classes. Many sects emerged from the Vaishnavas and Shaktas, especially in Bengal such as Nabarasik and Kartabhaja. The Vamachari tantrik form arose from the Shaktas. All of these sects had, in some form or another, sensual enjoyments as the basis for their religious practices. Hindu society was not ignorant of its social evils, and reforms began within the community to educate women and confront the orthodoxy and hypocrisy of sectarian religions. missionaries consistently targeted Hindu practices, and Brahmos had already attracted a significant section of youth who were unaware of the rich spiritual lineage of Hinduism and repelled by horrific social practices and the hypocrisy of some religious leaders. Champions of Hindu revivalism were predominantly nationalists as well, believing in the glory of Mother India and wanting to restore it. They felt that the only path to restoration was by bringing back the pure and pristine ideals of Hinduism, which had been the foundation of Indian culture for centuries until Islamic rule disrupted it. They initiated a spirited defense of Hindu culture, religion, and civilization against the consistent attacks from both missionaries and reform movements. The best representative of this movement was Bankim Chandra Chatterjee. Dr. R.C. Majumdar wrote, "Bankim Chandra openly attempted a reexamination, reinterpretation, and readjustment of our old theology and ethics in light of the most advanced modern thought and according to the new rules of literary criticism and scriptural interpretation that have powerfully influenced current religious life and thought in Christendom itself." Ramakrishna Paramhamsa was perhaps one of the greatest figures of the nineteenth century, embodying the best ideals of Hinduism. Sri Ramakrishna led the Hindu revival by reminding Hindus of their glorious legacy and tradition, centered around a pure life dedicated to God. Like a scientist in a laboratory, he chose the Dakshineswar temple as the ground for his practical experiments with different religions to discover the Truth. The doors to spiritual secrets were held ajar for this son of Mother Kali. He progressed effortlessly from one great journey to another, from the self-discovery of the luminous conscious principle behind the temple image of Mother Kali to a guided tour of all 64 principles of Tantra by an expert spiritual Brahman woman named Jogeshwari, to the loftiest ideals of Vedanta by itinerant monk Totapuri, to the Puranic traditions of worshipping Rama and Krishna, to delving into the Islamic Sufi tradition and understanding the subtle essence of Christianity. Ramakrishna experienced them all and became the epitome of inclusivity, discovering the "Oneness behind everything," which he called Mother. He realized that the same Truth could be reached through various means and that religious strife is merely amateurish, ego-centric battles. While staying in the temple premises and rarely venturing out into the areas of Calcutta, Ramakrishna attracted many genuine spiritual seekers and scholars from all strata of society. He refused none—from downtrodden and fallen prostitutes to the greatest spiritual figures, well-established businessmen, professors, doctors, students, nurses, teachers, officers, Marwari businessmen, Sikh soldiers, Nepal's Ambassador, and even the most ordinary and often illiterate folks—all received his unconditional love and grace. His remarkable inclusivity won the approval and admiration of all, even the staunchest critics of Hinduism, including Brahmos and Christian missionaries. After a few initial visits, Keshab Chandra Sen became a devoted admirer, and his article on Ramakrishna attracted many others to Dakshineswar. He was visited by the greatest Hindu scholars, who recognized his superiority and, in some cases, divinity, including Ishan Chandra Mukherjee, Prankrishna Mukherjee, Bijoy Krishna Goswami, Pratap Chandra Majumdar, Gauri Kanta of Indesh, Narayan Shastri, Padmalochan Pandit, Shambhu Charan Mullick, Hirananda Advani, Shibnath Shastri, Debendra Nath Tagore, Shashadhar Tarkachudamani, and many others. He met and influenced Vidyasagar, well-known doctors like Rajendralal Datta and Mahendralal Sarkar, actors like Girish Ghosh, teachers like Mahendranath Gupta (M), professionals like Ramchandra Datta, Suresh Mitra, Manamohan Mitra, Kedarnath Chatterjee, Adharlal Sen, and accomplished writers like Bankim Chandra Chatterjee and Michael Madhusudan Datta. In his lifetime, he created a band of young men led by Narendranath Datta, who, inspired by his pure ideals and remarkable inclusivity, renounced worldly life and became the center of a new spiritual awakening among the masses, leading to the ultimate revival of nationalism. The flood of spirituality emanating from Dakshineswar temple swept away the dirt of contemporary Hindu society without the need for explicit reforms. For the first time, Hindus understood what their religion stood for and the meaning and significance of their legacy, firmly rooted in Sankhya, Vedanta, and gems of Indian spiritual tradition. Thus, a gigantic spiritual force took hold of the rusty wheel of civilization, giving it a mighty push so that it gradually gained momentum and speed. Such colossal forces have traditionally been called "Avataras" by Hindu scriptures. Swami Vivekananda said, "The life of Sri Ramakrishna was an extraordinary searchlight under whose illumination one is able to truly understand the whole scope of Hindu religion. He was the object lesson of all the theoretical knowledge given in the Shastras. He showed by his life what the Rishis and Avataras really wanted to teach. The books were theories; he was the realization. This man, in fifty-one years, lived five thousand years of national spiritual life." Dr. R.C. Majumdar wrote, "Both by precept and example his own life, Ramakrishna brought home to an incredulous world, held under the spell of natural science, the reality of spiritual life and the means to attain it as described in ancient Hindu scriptures." Since Ramakrishna firmly established that idol worship is not and can lead to salvation if sincerely pursued, as demonstrated by many other Sadhakas or spiritual seekers in the past, it took away the edge of attacks from Brahmos, Arya Samajists, and Christians. When Max Muller wrote his treatise, "A Real Mahatman," on the life of Ramakrishna, the Western world was taken by surprise. Lofty ideals of Hindu spirituality had already been propagated by Vivekananda, and his Guru's life held the mirror in which such lofty ideals were reflected, shining upon the contemporary materialistic society enamored with new scientific thoughts and the tenets of rationalism. Through Ramakrishna and Vivekananda, Hindus learned to know who they are— "Amritasya Putrah," or sons and daughters of immortality. The Theosophical Society, established by Madam Blavatsky, had its first center in America but later shifted to Madras, subsequently led by Col. Olcott and Annie Besant. The Theosophical Society found substantial resonance among Hindus in India, primarily because they found in the a group of sympathizers who openly advocated for Hinduism. However, the society was more focused on practices and Tibetan Mahatmas rather than true spirituality. Nevertheless, the Theosophical Society also indirectly contributed to the rise of the nationalistic spirit by instilling a sense of pride among educated Hindus against the tirades of missionaries and reformists. When Swami Vivekananda came to Madras as a penniless monk and asked for a referral from the Theosophical Society to attend the Parliament of Religions, the Society asked him to first become a member, which he naturally refused. Therefore, the Theosophical Society neither helped Vivekananda nor came to his aid during his precarious early days in America before his wide recognition. In his address in Madras, Vivekananda criticized the Society's activities (which were more concerned with occultism than with the pure spirituality of Hinduism) and highlighted its duplicity. Annie Besant utilized the full strength of the Society to bolster her Home Rule movement's success. Later, when she drifted away from nationalistic movements and openly supported British rule, the Theosophical Society lost its edge, and its base in India eventually shrank. Keshab Chandra Sen had strong leanings toward Christianity and was loyal to the British, accepting their subjugation of India as a Divine Dispensation for India's salvation. However, not all Brahmos shared his view. Rajnarain Bose, for instance, presented his countrymen with a "complete and picture of Nationalism," addressing every aspect of life in a prospectus he issued in 1866 to a Society for the Promotion of National Feeling among the educated natives Bengal. The objective of this society was to resist the powerful tendency to imitate the West by reviving old ideas and traditions. Yoga, Indian classical music, Ayurveda, Indian food, dress, and etiquette were to replace foreign counterparts. Students were to learn their mother tongue first; the of Samskrit was encouraged, meetings were to be conducted in pure Bengali, and research was to be published in Bengali. Rabindranath Tagore acknowledged that he and his brother Jyotirindranath were initiated into some form of a secret society by Rajnarayan Bose and drew inspiration from him to liberate India. Nabagopal Mitra adopted Rajnarayan Bose's and started Hindu Mela to promote national feeling and patriotism among Hindus. The special features included patriotic songs, poems, and lectures, a review of the political, social, economic, and religious conditions of India, exhibitions of indigenous arts and crafts, and performances of indigenous martial arts (like playing with Lathi or bamboo sticks). The Hindu Mela met fourteen times between 1867 and 1880. An association named the National Society was formed with the objective of unity and national feeling among Hindus. Nabagopal Mitra argued that the "chief criterion of Nationalism was unity," which was sustained and promoted on different bases among different nation-states. He maintained that the basis of India's national unity had been Hindu religion, asserting that Hindus across India needed to come together on a common platform and that "Hindus were destined to be a religious Nation." Rajnarain Bose himself sought to base his nationalism on Hindu religion. He distanced himself from politics and religion in the society he formed in 1866 (Dr. R.C. Majumdar, History of Freedom Movement Vol 1). In 1872, he a lecture proclaiming the superiority of Hindu religion and culture over European and Christian theology and civilization. He concluded that Hindus had forgotten glorious past and that they were the inventors of rational thinking and societal freedom. He proudly proclaimed the cultural and religious superiority of Hindus, stating that Hinduism presented a much higher social idealism yet to be attained by other religions, including Christianity. He expressed hope that the rejuvenated nation of India would one day again illuminate the world with its knowledge, spirituality, and culture, and that the glory of Hinduism would spread throughout the world. Another significant figure promoting Hindu Nationalism was Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay. In an article in 1872, he stated that it was the duty of Hindus to counsel together, agree upon a definite policy, and formulate a common line of action. He emphasized that the national interest of Hindu India must be preserved, even at the cost of relationships with other nations whose welfare might come at the expense of Hindu India. He argued that even if doing good for one's own nation harmed others, Indians must pursue it. Bankim Chandra wrote the famous novel "Ananda Math," which immortalized the struggles of a band of monks to free India from despotic rule, drawing inspiration from the Sannyasi movement of the 1770s. In "Ananda Math," the song "Vande Mataram" was penned, which became the war cry of all nationalists in the days to come. Bankim openly attempted a reexamination, reinterpretation, and readjustment of old theology and ethics in light of the most advanced modern thought and in accordance with new rules of literary criticism (Dr. R.C. Majumdar, History of Freedom Movement Vol 1). He debated with Christian missionaries, with Hasty at the forefront, over their attacks on Hindu icons like Krishna. He criticized the works of Western scholars and Indologists like Weber, writing the book "Krishna Charitra" (The Character of Krishna) to prove the historical existence of Krishna, countering the mythology surrounding his character. He debunked many misconceptions propagated by missionaries and Indologists with sharp, logical arguments. His work inspired several other Hindu writers to defend their religion and culture. Hindu Nationalism received a significant boost from Arya Samaj. B.C. Pal noted that Hindus in Punjab felt keen humiliation in their inability to counter Muslim and Christian propagandists who condemned their religion as idolatry and polytheism. Dayananda Saraswati provided them with the much-needed honor by equipping them with a defense against vile propaganda, attacking Christians and Muslims in his "Satyartha Prakash" by the weaknesses of both religions. Arya Samaj was a militant sect, and its chief inspiration came from intense patriotism, which always carried a feeling of intolerance towards Islam, openly hostile towards Hinduism and the concept of Nationalism. It also fostered an anti-foreign attitude, especially among the youth. Political independence was one of Dayananda's objectives. He was the first to use the term "Swaraj" and one of the first to insist on the use of "Swadeshi." He advocated for recognizing Hindi as the national language of India and adopted "Suddhi," or the conversion of those who had left Hinduism for other religions. In this way, Arya Samaj sought to establish a sense of unity based on one religion, one society, and a shared language and culture. B.C. Pal also recognized the contribution of the Theosophical Society, as it instilled a spirit of self-respect among Hindus based on their legacy rooted in spirituality and attempted to dissuade Hindu intellectuals from self-loathing, as was the norm among free thinkers and rationalists, including the Brahmos. Hindus in India were particularly attentive because the sermons came from representatives of so-called advanced races—the Europeans—who led the Society and had embraced the basic principles and practices of Hinduism. Dr. R.C. Majumdar wrote, "Hindu Nationalism should not, however, be regarded as a counterpart or rival to Muslim nationalism as represented by the Wahabis. For though it is on the old glory of the Hindus, it embraces all races and creeds of India. Unlike Wahabism, it is not inspired by the ideal of establishing Hindu rule in India." The spirit of Nationalism was not confined to Bengal alone; it soon spread to Maharashtra and other parts of India. In the province of Bombay, nationalist icons such as Vishnu Krishna Chiplunkar, Mahadev Govinda Ranade, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, and Bal Gangadhar Tilak emerged. Barely a hundred years prior, the Marathas had a vast Hindu Empire, whose foundation was laid by the great legacy of Shivaji 200 years earlier. The Marathas never forgave or forgot their humiliation at the hands of the British. The rise of Nationalism among Muslims was slow, as they lagged behind in terms of Western education. For many in the Muslim community, considerations were paramount, and grievances against the British were viewed through that lens. Most Muslims, especially the elite, were distressed by the fact that they had been the rulers of India for over 600 years, only to be dethroned by a foreign power. Due to a sense of exclusivity and superiority over idol-worshipping Hindus, who had been ruled by them, Muslims were largely excluded from the new Nationalistic consciousness that was sweeping through India. As a result, the rising tide of Nationalism was predominantly Hindu in character and essence. Dr. R.C. Majumdar opines that this is largely due to the fact that the memory of past greatness binds people together into national unity in every country. However, in India, this historical consciousness affected the two major population elements—Hindus and Muslims—in diametrically opposite ways. Every historical incident that reflected glory on one was a humiliating memory for the other. Another striking feature of Nationalism was that it was possibly brought forth by English education. Bal Gangadhar Tilak echoed this sentiment in "Kesari" in 1885, stating, "We are gradually being inspired by the spirit of patriotism. The birth of patriotism among us is due to English rule and English education." The argument was that English education made Indians aware of ancient and modern history and the fruits of patriotism among the ancient Greeks and Romans. Tilak felt that patriotism had not diffused to the ignorant sections of society who did not receive English education and therefore made it his mission to propagate patriotism among the masses throughout his life. He revitalized the Ganapati festival and inaugurated the Shivaji festival, making these festivals gateways to the rise of national consciousness toward freedom. However, these movements had opposite effects on Hindus and. Muslims despised images, especially those of Hindu gods, and for them, Shivaji represented resurgent Hinduism against Islamic rule. Therefore, they were repelled by both. Nevertheless, Hindus found both icons to be symbols of pride and made them the fulcrum for the rising tide of Nationalistic ideas. Even in, Shivaji festivals gained popularity through Sakharam Ganesh Deuskar, supported by Sister Nivedita, Aurobindo, and Nationalist leaders.